With Reference to Relevant Research Studies, to What Extent Does Genetic Inheritance Influence Behavior?

There is currently a substantial body of research supporting the argument that there is a genetic influence on numerous human behaviors, such as homosexuality, intelligence and personality. One indication that behavior has a genetic basis is that behavior is often species specific. Examples include the warning behavior of prairie dogs or the mouth to mouth sharing of blood amongst vampire bats. The closer our genetic resemblance is to a certain species, the more behaviors we have in common. Since long it has also been known that behavior can be bred true, which is the reason why some breeds display specific behaviors. Behavior is also known to change in response to changes in biological structures or processes. Examples include the use of the SSRI drug which alters the reuptake of serotonin in the synapses and consequently our mood, or the loss of important cognitive functions due to brain damage. As the anatomical structure and the physiological processes depend on our DNA we can infer that genes indirectly influence our behavior. It is important to bear in mind that the brain can alter its structure from experience, but this capacity must clearly be genetically determined. Most researchers agree that all behaviors are more or less indirectly influenced by genes. Where they disagree is the extent to which genes influence behavior. Some behavior also seems to be more influenced by genes than others. The influence of cognitive, social and cultural factors on behavior cannot be denied, and even though there may be a genetic predisposition for many disorders, the extent to which the genotype is expressed in its phenotype will depend on environmental influences. The stress-vulnerability model, for instance, assumes that the onset and symptoms of mental disorders are influenced by three interacting factors; biological, environmental and protecting factors that may protect the individual against development of a disorder. A study that illustrates the interaction of genes and environment on behavior is a molecular genetics study by Caspi et al. (2003). Caspi et al. investigated the relationship between the 5-HTT gene and occurrence of depression in 847 New Zealanders. The 5-HTT gene is responsible for the production of serotonin in the body, which in turn has an influence on our mood. A DNA sample was taken of each participant, who also was asked to answer a questionnaire on depression. In order to ensure the participants’ honesty in their self report, their responses were cross checked with a friend of their own choice. The researchers also controlled for levels of stressful life events. The results showed that participants with a short allele on the 5-HTT gene had an increased vulnerability for depression between the ages of 21 to 26. The study also found that the participants only had developed depression if they had suffered from stressful life events, no matter whether they had a propensity for the disorder or not. Replications of the Caspi study in different countries by Chiao and Blizinsky (2010) further support a gene – environment interaction for depression. They investigated the prevalence of the short allele in the 5-HTT gene in different populations and found that there are higher frequencies in populations that are considered to have a â€Å"collectivist† culture, such as Asians, and that there are lower frequencies in populations with an â€Å"individualist† culture, such as Europeans or North Americans. This seems counter-intuitive, considering that depression is more common in individualist cultures than collectivist cultures. Asians should genetically be more prone to depression than Europeans and North Americans, yet Europeans and North Americans are more likely to suffer from it. The research is suffering from several methodological problems. It is possible that depression is as common or in the East as in the West, but that it is underreported. If the data is to be trusted, it suggests that Asian cultures may have better protective factors against the development of depression compared to Western culture, such as better social support. These findings raise potential ethical issues of discrimination and prejudice. Because of the methodological weaknesses of the research, the findings are not conclusive. Most research supports an interaction between genes and environment on behavior. Genetic research on twins and families usually measure the degree of similarity in characteristics, such as intelligence, between genetically related and unrelated individuals. From this comparison, a concordance rate between 0 and 100 is calculated. If the rate is close to 100, the behavior is assumed to have a strong genetic basis. On the other hand, if the rate is low, environmental factors are thought to play a major part. Some of behaviors that have the highest concordance rates are homosexuality, schizophrenia, alcoholism, general mood levels, and intelligence, with average concordance rates between 60 and 70. Behaviors with lower concordance rates include depression, personality, religious values, political beliefs and vocational interests, with average concordance rates of around 30 %. It may seem curious that some of the latter behaviors have a small genetic component, and it is possible that the concordance rates are flawed by methodological issues. The concordance rates fluctuate between studies of the same behavior. This may be due poor control of confounding variables. Some relationships may be purely coincidental, such as in a famous study by Bouchard where two identical twins raised apart had a wife with the same name and in addition had named their son by the same name. Even if monozygotic twins that are raised in different families exercise similar behavior, it can also be because they are raised in similar social and cultural settings, because they look similar and therefore are treated the same, or because they exercise similar behavior patterns of adopted children. Also, one cannot rule out that researcher expectancies and small sample sizes can influence the concordance rates. Finally, there is a construct validity problem of the studied behaviors. Concepts such as intelligence lack an agreed upon definition, and some mental disorders are viewed differently in different countries. It is therefore difficult to compare concordance rates between such studies, as they are measuring different concepts. Even so, it is possible that if personality and talent has a genetic component, individuals may be biologically more inclined to some interests than others, and thus may be more likely to adapt a certain value system or vocation. Even though there are methodological problems involved in genes and behavior research, there is overwhelming evidence that there is an influence of genetic inheritance on most behaviors. The extent of this genetic influence is however still controversial, and may vary depending on the behavior.

Journey’s End and the Accrington Pals †Class System Essay

Explore the ways in which the class system is exposed in both Journey’s End and The Accrington Pals. How far do you agree that Sherriff explores this aspect in his play more successfully than Whelan? The theme of class is one that is important in both R. C. Sherriff’s Journey’s End and Peter Whelan’s The Accrington Pals. Class is explored through the use of characterisation, setting, structure, dialogue and also political ideologies. Both Sherriff and Whelan may have chosen to develop the class system to emphasise the change it has undergone since the war ended. The Accrington Pals is a modern novel, first performed in 1982. As well as portraying the political views of the time, there are also echoes of Thatcherism. Whelan shows this conservative ideology through the character of May. May is a working-class stall owner who aspires to be middle-class and has middle-class ideals â€Å"they’re just waiting to see you stumble, slip back and be as they are. In the end it’s just you†¦yourself. We don’t create the rules of life. They’re there. † The same ideologies are hinted at in Sherriff’s Journey’s End. There were few plays written during the 1920’s that commented on political and social events and not a lot were very successful. Sherriff said in his autobiography that his characters were ‘simple, unquestioning men who fought the war because it seemed the only right and proper thing to do †¦ (it was a play) in which not a word was spoken against the war †¦ and no word of condemnation was uttered †¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ What he hoped to do was to show ‘how men really lived in the trenches, how they talked and how they behaved. ’ Although unintentional there is clear class distinction and, like The Accrington Pals, a conservative ideology. In both plays there are clear divisions between the middle and working classes, this is shown through characterisation. Sherriff exposes the class system through the use of his characterisation of the officers and serving soldiers, he portrays the officers as being from the middle-class, public school section of society. For example, Raleigh is a public schoolboy who is, †just out from England†. He is also the only officer there who has â€Å"never been up on the line before. Due to his class, he is immediately instigated as an officer and therefore as a lot in common with the other officers in the dugout. He speaks with a Received Pronunciation accent (Queen’s English) and uses a lot of sporting idioms â€Å"He was a skipper of rugger at Barford, and kept wicket for the eleven. A jolly good bat, too. † The use of the sporting language here is closely associated with an education in a public school. Raleigh’s enthusiasm when speaking of his school days also emphasises his inexperience with war and the effect it has on people. This is a huge contrast to the character of Tom in The Accrington Pals, who is a working-class boy that lodges with May. Like Raleigh he is inexperienced with the workings of war. He studied at an art school and before joining the Pals, was an apprenticed lithographer and helped May run her stall. He has socialist and progressive views, which contrast greatly with the conservative ideals of Journey’s End. â€Å"It’s a free exchange of skills†¦of produce of hand or brain. That’s what’s needed. Not money. † Whelan may have drawn inspiration for the character of Tom from the Russian revolution of 1917 that lead to the monarchy falling and a provisional government being elected. It was dubbed the ‘socialist revolution’ and Tom shares similar ideals to the Russian working-class. Setting is an important form which exposes the class system. In Journey’s End, although the characters are no longer at home, they are served three-course meals and are waited on by servants. The officers are treated differently to the soldiers and still live in a similar manner they were accustomed to back home. For example, there is an incident in the play where Mason, the officers’ cook, forgets to pack the pepper in the mess box. The soldiers tell him to fetch someone get the pepper because â€Å"war’s bad enough with pepper – but war without pepper – it’s – it’s bloody awful! † Trotter’s uniform is also rather small suggesting he has put on weight and has been eating well, unlike the ordinary soldiers who eat bread and cheese. Although the officers are eating well, the food they have is questionable â€Å"What kind of soup is this, Mason? It’s yellow soup, sir. It’s got a very deep yellow flavour. † Their living conditions are not very habitable either. When Hardy is showing Osborne the dugout he explains how the beds are in poor condition â€Å"The ones in the other dugout haven’t got any bottoms to them. You keep yourself in by hanging your arms and legs over the sides. Mustn’t hang your legs too low, or the rats gnaw your boots. † The dugout is described in a warren-like way which makes the audience feel claustrophobic, â€Å"Two officers in here, and three in there. [He points to the right-hand tunnel. ]† The small setting allowed him to include extremes of emotion. In stressful situations, strained emotions are to be expected. In creating a play which leapt from high drama to calm, Sherriff showed a true understanding of human psychology and of the war itself. The main areas of setting in The Accrington Pals are May’s stall and her kitchen in her home, but other locations (such as Sarah’s backyard and the recruitment office) are also used. Some scenes cross-fade into each other, suggesting there are connections between the two scenes – for example, Act Two, Scene one, which begins with Ralph and Eva both lit on stage, Ralph being close to the front lines in in France and Eva in May’s kitchen. This scene isn’t just marked by the lighting change but also the change in sound, from the machine guns giving way to the sewing machines whirring. â€Å"The light on Ralph fades. There is more light on Eva who begins to work on the dress with a sewing machine. The sound of the sewing machine rises above the fading away of the machine guns. † One of Whelan’s qualities is the ability to give an impression of reality in the play with his use of, setting, lighting and sound. Journey’s End takes part over the space of four days and is presented in three acts. There is a very limited and confined time span and claustrophobic setting. The play is linked by a series of almost unrelated scenes; the disorganised nature of the play reflects the state of war; it has a jerky feel about it, where events do need lead on neatly or naturally onto the next. The play includes a number of complications, moments of drama and an exploration of the characters’ reactions and relationships showing the conditions of the war, leaving the audience to come to their own conclusions about the abrupt ending. These complications lead to mini climaxes all throughout the play, for example Raleigh’s letter in Act Two at the end of Scene 1. Stanhope confiscates a letter from Raleigh insisting on his right to censor it. Stanhope is in a relationship with Raleigh’s sister and is worried that, in the letter, Raleigh will reveal Stanhope’s growing alcoholism. He is surprised to find that the letter is full of praise for him, â€Å"He hardly ever sleeps in the dugout; he’s always up in the front line with the men, cheering them on with jokes, and making them keen about things, like he did the kids at school. This complication is resolved however and the play moved on to its next complication: the raid. The use of Mason as a character is to provide moments of light relief to the audience. â€Å"There was a bit of lean in the middle of yours, sir, but it’s kind of shrunk up in the cooking. † He brings a sense of normality to the war around them. The structure of The Accrington Pals is slightly different. It is split into two acts, with ten scenes in Act One and eight in Act Two and takes place over the space of two years (1914 to 1916). The play begins with the central relationship of Tom and May. Gradually as the play moves on May becomes the centre of the play. The relationship between Tom and May is then compared to the physical one of Ralph and Eva, whom may envies for her instinctive qualities. Throughout the play may increasing isolates herself from the people around her, for example ordering both Tom (Act One, Scene Six) and Eva (Act Two, Scene Six) from her home. It is almost as though she would prefer the safety and consistency of life alone to that of an intimate relationship. The final scene with Eva and Reggie suggests that May with accept life and carry on â€Å"I need you to put me right. † Whelan also applies film techniques to the play. The technique in Act Two, Scene Seven by which reality fades into May’s dream or nightmare as it may be, is very similar to what you would find in a film. The fluency of the scene enabled Whelan to develop a dialectic structure in which the scenes are viewed in relation to each other.

Roles and Responsibilities of a Teacher in the Life Long

Case study Role of a teacher in the lifelong learning sector This case study investigates the role and responsibilities of a teacher in the lifelong learning sector. I am a piano and guitar tutor on a one to one basis, so I have my own views and methods on teaching. However, I thought it would be interesting to study how a teacher deals with a whole class, as opposed to just one pupil. Further to the research for the study, an interview was conducted with Joe Bloggs, a teacher in School X.The interview examined a number of areas including: roles and responsibilities, boundaries, promoting equality and diversity, safe and supportive learning environments, promoting appropriate behaviour, legal and moral responsibilities, the challenges and rewards of the role and how Joe has had to adapt and respond to the ongoing changes in the lifelong learning sector. The first question covered what Joe considered to be his main responsibility as a teacher; to engage and motivate young people in th e subject of music and learning in general. He uses a variety of methods to accomplish this. Also read: Roles and Responsibilities of a Teacher PTLLS AssignmentFor example, practical sessions/role play and getting everyone involved, as well as written assessments, presentations and various visual tasks to ensure all different types of learners are accounted for. This is effective when teaching music history /theory, however, when a student is learning to play an instrument, all these areas are covered naturally. Joe allows his pupils to make mistakes, for example, if a pupil is playing a piece of music and they hit a wrong note, he will wait to see if they can identify that they were out of tune first.This is another way of working on their aural skills. If they do not pick up on it he ensures the mistakes are addressed and provides help and advice to rectify the problem. Conjointly, we addressed the topic of promoting equality and diversity. Joe feels strongly about this and his approach is through film/music stimulation, with focus on a particular character or topic. Two p opular examples of this are Forest Gump, where the main character has a disability and the film ‘The Island’ which deals with race issues.Using this method has proven effective, as Joe has found through reflective discussions with the class after watching the film. One of the challenges that Joe has had to face during his time in the teaching profession is behaviour problems with the pupils. This covered a whole spectrum of issues such as disruptions, bad attitude, pupils refusing to complete tasks and even verbal abuse and physical threats. The methods in which Joe deals with this brings me onto the field of boundaries between the teacher and pupil.Along with legal boundaries, and following rules and regulations according to the Code of Conduct and Data Protection Act – physical boundaries are extremely important. When teaching/dealing with a pupil, he says distance must be kept, however, he feels that in most cases, experience will enable friendly and approacha ble relationships. If a matter was to arise that was out of his hands, it would be his duty to report it to the school safeguarding officer/counsellor.Another way in which he deals with this is to set a good example to the pupils, as ensuring appropriate behaviour is a major factor in maintaining a safe and supportive learning environment. Joe adopts a friendly and positive attitude towards his pupils, ensuring that he never raises his voice, yet be firm and serious where necessary. The aim of this is so that the pupils’ perception of their teacher is approachable, but at the same time they see their teacher as a figure of authority. Although this has proved quite demanding, the biggest challenge Joe has had to face is the ever-changing development in technology.He tried to continue his teaching without it but this became increasingly difficult due to changes in assessment criteria and the demand of technology in general, particularly in music. Music has developed throughout the years, for example, we don’t need to compose music for ourselves these days. We can use music programs to do that for us, such as Garageband or Sibelius. Joe decided the only way to tackle this is to embrace it. This has helped a great deal with teaching and by doing this he has furthered his own education.The school that Joe teaches at has recently become an academy, so it is now more performing arts-orientated where as before, the school focused more on the academic side of things. This has forced him to take on a bigger work load and thus proved his capability to adapt and respond to changes quickly. Joe’s response to a lot of the questions portrays how education in music and generally has evolved with respect to time and the steps he has had to take in order to meet the requirements of his role and adapt to the ongoing changes.When faced with the question regarding ethical responsibilities, he had some interesting techniques on how he engaged this topic with hi s pupils. Practice is an essential for learning an instrument, Joe motivates and encourages his pupils that regular practice is the key to progression. He evaluates progress with tests covering all different types of learning such as aural, sight reading, written, and through practical tests. Both Joe and I have found that through music, it is easy to distinguish the strengths and weaknesses of our pupils and how they best learn.For example, one person may be able to listen to a piece of music and play by ear, whereas the next pupil will not be able to do that, but will excel in reading the music. Joe understands it is important to acknowledge the strengths and weaknesses of each individual and sees that each pupil is facilitated for in order to help them achieve their full potential. Joe mentioned various internal and external points of referral, for example, the awarding bodies, and the Academy’s safeguarding officers/counsellors.It is evident that he has a strong passion f or music as he gave up his career as a pilot in order to pursue his music career. In defiance of the challenges Joe has been faced with, his subtle, yet dynamic and enthusiastic approach helped him to overcome them. I found during my time with Joe, that although there are many generic rules, responsibilities and boundaries that all teachers/tutors have to adhere to, there are also those that are specific and subject to the area of study. It is imperative that these are recognised in order to achieve a finer understanding of the role of the teacher.

Amazon Marketing Strategies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Amazon Marketing Strategies - Essay Example Consumer needs can be determined through their browsing history and can stock up their inventory levels as and when required for future references or to determine the expected form of orders that a certain level of the market can consider as relevant. It is vital for the business to have a combination of a good retail supply chain workforce and technical people who would be available within the company for the provision of technical support in the company’s operations. However, the turnover for Amazon is very high. This is because most of the employees do not stay in the organization for more than one year. This paper has been documented in an attempt to establish the reasons for a high rate of turnover. The basis for the study is mainly primary and secondary research in regards to the factors that contribute towards the understanding of the study item. The section of the literature review explores the studies that have been made by the authors about this issue of turnover in the business environment. The topic of employee turnover has been studied and researched by a big number of scholars over a very long period. In the Human resources framework, the rate of turnover of the employees is the rate at which an employer acquires and loses his/her employees. The high rate of turnover is an indication of the fact that the employees in an organization would work in the organization for a shorter span of time. This rate is determined after a comparison with the other industries found within the same market. The turnover metric is determined by dividing the total number of parts workers who have left within a year by the number of employees who were engaged in the company for that particular year (Cascio and Boudreau, 2011, p. 80). The same metric has been used by Price in his model of turnover (Price, 1977, pp. 10-25) which may not be viewed as a recently published source but still plays a major role in contributing to the topic of employee turnover.

Antigony Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Antigony - Essay Example His Creon is really a dramatic character. The plot of the play is simple. Events take place in Thebes, in front of the royal palace. First, we learn the tragic fate of Oedipus’ children. His two sons have slaughtered each other struggling for the crown. Creon, the ruler of the state, issues the law ordering to bury â€Å"Eteocles, who perished in the fight to save our city, the best and bravest of our spearmen† â€Å"with all those purifying rituals which accompany the noblest corpses, as they move below†, while â€Å"Polyneices, who returned from exile, eager to wipe out in all-consuming fire  his ancestral city and its native gods, keen to seize upon his family’s blood  and lead men into slavery† is â€Å"to have no burial mound, no funeral rites, and no lament†. He is to be left unburied with â€Å"his body left for birds and dogs to eat† [190-200]. However, this proclamation contradicts all the traditions prescribed by gods and minded by people for many centuries. Ant igone, Oedipus’ daughter and Polynecies sister, is going to bury the brother. Sophocles’ Antigone is ruled by the laws set by gods. As she explains her firm decision to Creon:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   sent no such laws for men. I did not think  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   where they first appeared. So I did not mean  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  anything which you proclaimed strong enough   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   to let a fear of any human will Creon is outraged that someone has dared to disobey him. Most of all, he is irritated by the fact that this person is a woman. He feels insulted and, blinded with his pride and rage, is not able to hear any advice given to him by his environment. He  sentences Antigone to being buried alive in a cavern, notwithstanding the fact that she is his son’s (Haemon) bride. Haemon’s attempts to bring his father to reason result in even stronger rage of Creon. The end is tragic. Creon

Organizational Communication and Conflict Resolution Essay

Organizational Communication and Conflict Resolution - Essay Example Under this new configuration, corporate communication is defined as "an instrument of management by means of which all consciously used forms of internal and external communication are harmonized as effectively and efficiently as possible to create a favorable basis for relationships with groups upon which the company is dependent (Van Riel, 1995)." This reflects a growing recognition by top management and corporate boardroom that the ability to succeed and rise above the competition depends upon the firm's capability to communicate effectively with its stakeholders, thus making corporate communication an absolute and integral part of top management functions. In line with this thinking, communication managers and departments are now assigned such loftier titles as corporate communications, public affairs or corporate affairs (Fombrum, 1996). It also gave rise to a new corporate communication vocabulary, which consists of words like stakeholders, identity and reputation, among others. Moreover, the work of corporate communication has widened in scope to take place at three dimensions: corporate, market and operational levels. This corporate work involves communicating the organization's mission and vision to its shareholders, employees, customers, etc., while the market-oriented activity explores and implement ways by which the company can compete best in a given market. At the operational level, the communication group is left to manage its own resources, processes and people, a function used to be done on its behalf by the finance department, the engineering section and the human resource department. Relationship to Management How corporate communication has wormed its way into the top rung of the corporate ladder may be seen at Siemens, whose productivity, profitability and corporate image continue to be the envy of its competitors. At Siemens, communication managers oversee a wide range of activities related to management and decision-making, including analysis and research, formulation of communication objectives for the entire organization, and counseling of senior management. The company maintains a corporate communication department that handles advertising, internal communication and media relations. In addition, there is a central corporate messages section that supervises the senior communication professionals responsible for developing and protecting the overall corporate image of Siemens, as well as copywriters for the speeches of senior managers. Such consolidation of communication activities in one or two departments is now commonplace in progressive companies, with the communication practitio ners having the ear of CEOs and senior executive teams, especially on stakeholder and reputation issues (Grunig & Grunig, 1998). The same importance is given to corporate communication by Philips, which keeps a large corporate communication department at its head office in Amsterdam that counsels the CEO and senior managers on

Professional Development - Career Profile (in Marketing) Assignment

Professional Development - Career Profile (in Marketing) - Assignment Example ternet marketing is one of the latest ongoing business industries that is proving itself to be highly profitable as compared to physical offices and manufacturing organisations. It has versatility in its work operations and constantly thrives for changes to be profitable and successful. The resources used are minimum and the main element required is knowledge and creative skills to implement ideas. One such organisation that I am highly interested in joining is Google Incorporation. I would like to start my professional career from one of the most successful multinational organisations that have made a good brand name in the internet marketing category. The mission statement of Google is to allow all the users on the internet to have the access of various kinds of information pertaining to any topic. The information should be available and readily accessible by all the users of the world (Google Jobs, 2013). Google has engineered its management styles by taking in top notch professionals that have a good command on their work. The leadership style followed at Google is mostly Laissez Fairre. The professionals hired at Google are professional in the field of technology and with a good amount of experience. Google hires the best ones who know their word and do not require any guidance to conduct their work procedures. This one of the factors of how organisations are successful. The organisational structure of Google consists of Board of Director, Senior Leadership members and Executive Officers. It is a short hierarchy and both the executive officers and Senior Leaders are accountable to the Board of Directors. In Laissez Fairre leadership style, the expert professionals are empowered with the tasks authority and this is how the employees work at Google (Google Company, 2013). Google has an open culture policy at its work place and it encourages the employees to give their valuable suggestions and opinions. On emails and sometimes in cafe, the Google audience

Watch a movie and write about it "The Milagro Beanfield War" Essay

Watch a movie and write about it "The Milagro Beanfield War" - Essay Example It is important for the audience to understand the motives and influences that make the characters do what they do and considering their backgrounds as well. In this case, the small village is denied water for reasons that they cannot understand. Powerful people in the society probably picked such a small village since most of its inhabitants are very poor and are likely to offer very little protest if any at all. The residents are not given any explanations and they also do not do anything about it until Joe Mondragon in a fit of anger unplugs the water into his bean fields. The developers are known to change any piece of land that they come across as resorts and golf clubs that are used by the rich people. It is clear that the poor people are not of any importance such that even heir source of livelihoods are manipulated in order to create space for the rich people in the society. The poor do not have anyone to stand for them and it takes the action of Joe Milagros who was angered by the fact that he could no longer farm to help the residents get back their source of livelihoods. However, this does not happen without major confrontations as people unite against the said developers. There are some villagers who are against it while majority of the other villagers prefer not to get involved in the issues. The reluctance to get involved shows how meek the villagers are and it also shows that they believe that nothing can be done to help them in their situation and would rather suffer in silence. They may also fear for even their lives as the developers ar e rather powerful people who could do anything they wished. The movie shows the plight of the poor against the rich in that the rich most of the time can do anything that they wish with minimal consequences. While there are people who are willing to fight for their rights, most people just believe that they should let things be as they are even if they are suffering.

Is the UK Airline Industry Competitive Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Is the UK Airline Industry Competitive - Essay Example As the paper declares taxation is always a painful and complex issue with reverberations on all elements of the industry. However considering the relatively under-taxed nature of the UK airline industry it is possible that it will not be too badly hurt by the new tax although it might result in a decline in passengers. This essay stresses that this is a significant issue facing the airline industry at the moment. British Airways is recently involved in a struggle to resolve with union officials after it has declared a strike because of BA’s refusal to meet it demands. BA’s after failing to come to an agreement with union over its cost-cutting program now appears to be focusing on wearing down its employees. The company has done whatever it can from out-sourcing to using volunteers and claims that it has managed to keep a lot of its flights running. The impact of regulation on competitiveness is a complicated one. It is also hard to assess whether the regulatory environment will change anytime in the near future specially considering the havoc that lack of regulation played on the financial markets. What is essential however that changes in regulation will definitely impact competitiveness but may impact different players and stake-holders in a different way. If we take a look at finan cial indicators as a measure of the performance of the industry we can see that many firms have reported serious losses indicating troubled times for the industry. British Airways for example been in dire financial straits indicating losses far worse then what many had predicted and with no respite anytime soon.

Grant Proposal Essay Example for Free

Grant Proposal Essay Program planning is a process that shows the needs of a community and the reason and purpose for the programs an organization wants to set up to address that need. Through program planning; goals, objectives, activities, and evaluations are set up to provide the framework for the grant proposal to be written. A well written grant proposal will show the reader that the organization writing the proposal truly understands the problems within a specific community and it will convince the reader that they want to provide the financial help that will be necessary for the organization to solve the problem. Once a problem within a community has been discovered, an organization figures out how to confront that problem and writes a grant proposal to explain that problem and how it plans to help solve that problem, by proving that they understand the situation. The grant proposal starts with the premise, which explains the understanding the organization has about the problem and shows the belief they have that they will be able to provide the help necessary to solve the problem. The conclusion portion of the grant proposal explains the ways that the organization plans to address the problem through the programs and services they will provide to the community. Finally, the grant proposal will provide a detailed explanation of what they plan the outcomes of their programs to be. The organization has to prove that their programs will truly be an asset to the community using their grant proposal by making sure that each part of the proposal will compliment the other through a descriptive and flowing argument and by making sure that each part of the grant proposal compliments the other.

The Philosophy of Niccolo Machiavelli

The Philosophy of Niccolo Machiavelli Who was Machiavelli the prince? What were his beliefs? Machiavelli was an Italian student of history, who was an ambassador in Florence Italy. He was a long time official in the Florentine Republic, with obligations in government and military issues. Machiavelli composed, in his novel the prince, the solid focal points in political power, including religion and good conduct. Machiavelli, composition amid a time of sensational change known as the Italian Renaissance, showed demeanor towards numerous issues, basic politics, which upheld his conviction that solid government was the most critical component in the public eye. These demeanor and thoughts were extremely proper for the time in light of the fact that they focused on solid, unified force, the main sort of initiative that appeared to be working all through Europe, and which was the component Italy was needing. Machiavelli was a political realist. He thought there were sure abilities and qualities required to turn into a political ruler. In his work, The Prince, Machiavelli gives exhortation on the most proficient method to be a fruitful sovereign, or ruler. Effective is incompletely focused around how influential a ruler was amid his lifetime (rule), yet generally focused around how much the sovereign influenced the lives, through laws or societal standards, of future eras. Machiavelli’s main objective was achieving and keeping political force. He accepted the fact individuals were characteristically childish and would, by nature, not regard the law or work for the benefit of all, without urban ethics. The ideas he presented were the best way to control† human urges was to impart national pride and shared admiration for all nationals of a state. The distinction in Crafty thought, as yet ever, from different logicians was he accepted political power was no more defended by religious or profound tenets. In spite of the fact that Machiavelli accepted this to be genuine, he still knew it was essential for natives to keep up a pledge for the benefit of everyone, through national pride and admiration. An alternate part of varying concocted to this point in time was Machiavelli knew advancing municipal goodness in subjects required the quest for individual freedom. Machiavelli, in his compositions, discusses a few diverse of government. He found himself able to dismantle governments, building the distinction in the middle of new and old governments. The new governments are the hard ones to keep up, on the grounds that individuals are not defenseless to change, indeed they just about rebellion against it, unless the new ruler can address his pledge and keep his guarantees. Machiavelli knew individuals were chiefly worried about their property and prosperity of their gang. He also knew the administrations employment was to ensure both; notwithstanding helping the individuals thrive and take after their souls, maybe. Machiavelli accepted just certain individuals could get to be rulers, in light of the fact that it took an extraordinary kind of individuals. He said rulers are not bound by good demands or social standards. Rulers does not need to maintain all the qualities expected of their natives. While this is genuine, he states that a ruler must be genuine in the public eye, which depicts the majority of the people temperance showed in all the residents. In the event that the individuals accept the ruler is misrepresenting his convictions, they will turn. Then again, when the time comes to settle on a choice outside the domain of subject information, a ruler mu st be savage and readied to do â€Å"whatever it takes â€Å"to guarantee the states success. In the event that this implies the ruler needs to lie or murder, he will. This clarifies why just certain individuals can be rulers. One of Machiavellis most loved illustrations of viable rulers is Cesare Borgia. Borgia was chosen ruler, after his father was chosen as pope. Borgia knew how to obtain regard from his residents through trepidation and control. He likewise gave the individuals a decent government and brought peace and success. The inquiry dependably emerges, however, about what to do with the dissidents, or agitators of a gathering. Borgia dealt with this by enlisting a master. The implementer was accountable for taking care of criminals, normally by death. The authority was a brutal man and summoned fear in the subjects. Borgia did not need his kin to partner him with the master, so he executed him. At the same time he didnt simply kill him; he place him in the town square slice down the middle to show individuals he was not kidding. The natives were in amazement and considered Borgia their saint, for pulverizing the implementer, who they had developed to detest. Notwithstanding how great a ruler Bor gia was however, when the time came to introduce another pope and it wasnt his father, Borgia missed the mark and was no more the ruler. While Machiavelli appeared to put no stock in the part of the resident in deciding a ruler, he thought rulers could ensure their energy by bringing out the affection for their kin. Yet even this isnt sufficient constantly, in light of the inquiry constantly solicited by subjects from its administration, what have you accomplished for me of late. The ruler must secure the residents property, thriving, family, and prosperity. For individuals to lead cheerful, full lives, they must be permitted to do what they need, inside the rules of a state. In any case this is a cycle simpler to keep up, than to start. For individuals to do as they wish, there must be rules set up, yet for rules to be secured, individuals need to recognize what they need to do and what they are not able to do. Here is the reason governments were inherent the primary spot. The gathering of individuals picked somebody to make rules, in light of the fact that individuals needed more than they had. This is the genuine r eason for a ruler, to help make a general public. Rulers having and keeping force, by a â€Å"whatever it takes â€Å"mentality, overwhelmed Machiavelli. This appears to negate what he is saying in regards to the benefit of everyone and metro excellencies. On the off chance that the ruler is just inspired by force, what consideration would he have for the individuals? None, it appears to me. As indicated by Ian Johnston, The Prince was more than a weak endeavor for Machiavelli try and reach some sort of political standard after he had been kicked out and tormented. Johnston accepts The Prince was to a greater degree a parody against rulers and what they remained for. There are a few examples where Machiavelli repudiates himself, frequently inside the same passage. Particularly, Machiavelli accepted rulers should most importantly, ensure their own particular security at whatever expense. In The Prince, he goes to say a standout amongst the most effective methods for securing themselves is to decimate the urban communities as the be st way to hold them. On the off chance that you consider this for a moment, this bodes well. Why would Machiavelli advise rulers the best way to control something is to decimate it. Individuals would not acknowledge control on the off chance that it is taken in such a brutal, merciless way. A few different occurrences of Machiavelli appearing to play around with words a bit, is the point at which he is discussing great laws and great arms. At whatever point, the words great, well, awful, and so on are utilized, there is a reason. These words impart a feeling of ethical quality. Instead of attempting to observe what Machiavelli is truly attempting to say, individuals get stuck on the inclination summoned with these words. Machiavelli has a few likenesses and contrasts contrasted with Islamic and Jewish political thought. The most unmistakable contrast, I think, is the relationship in the middle of religion and theory. Machiavelli doesnt put much stock into the idea of religion. He doesnt accept the state ought to need to rely on upon religious thought to survive. Truly, Machiavelli accepted the Roman Catholic Church was in charge of Italy being part into five states. The congregation separates as opposed to unites. In the Islamic world, religion is the principle string going through and entwining everything. Alfarabi was keen on making a working relationship in the middle of religion and theory. He was one of the first Muslim savants and his work is mulled over as much as Aristotle or Plato, in future eras. Avicenna accepted all components in life were clarified in circumstances and end results terms. The idea of circumstances and end results goes through all the Islamic scholars. For Alfarabi, the ci rcumstances and end results was put to use with reason. For motivation to exist there must be two crucial exercises. The primary is to characterize essential presumptions and definitions that are the beginning stages and building squares of a contention, (reason) and second, check whether finishes of a contention take after intelligently from the contentions fundamental suspicions and definitions, (impact). Avicenna accepted individuals would tame their wishes for the benefit of everyone. This perspective is to some degree like Machiavellis perspective, yet the measures for the benefit of all are characterized diversely for both. People who practice Islam they believe everyone if characterized by the expression of God and translated by reason. They consolidate both to structure a working relationship. I accept the reason the Islamic masterminds partner God with reason, and in this way theory, lies in their lifestyle. The religious pioneers of their time laughed at the thought of rea soning. The religious pioneers accepted if reasoning had merit, what place did religion have? . Scholars in the Muslim world must be acknowledged by one means or another. So they started partner religion and reasoning. They pushed the way that both were overwhelmed by the journey of the great life. The distinction was religion utilized God as their answer and reasoning utilized reason. One common pattern between Machiavelli, the Islamic and Jewish scholars is the conviction that individuals need to lead cheerful, delighted lives, and for this to be fulfilled, an overseeing energy must be available. More than that, individuals need to be included in a political group. Maimonides was a Jewish rationalist. He was additionally a rabbi, making his perspective of logic harmonize with his perspective of religion. He was permitted to decipher the Torah for the normal individuals, on the grounds that it was the conviction that it took exceptional commitment to learn and comprehend the ideas. This thought is like Alfarabis conviction that individuals need to utilize religious ideas and images to comprehend the unpredictable, supreme truth of theory. The way Maimonides leaves the expression of God up to elucidation would appear to be a decent beginning stage for a general public. Instead of lecture the individuals about stuff they can not comprehend, the rabbis capacity is to help them comprehend what is good and bad, additionally to re-decipher the thoughts if circumstances emerge. Here is a spot where I can no discover no pertinence to our general public today. We dont always re-decipher the Scripture. Rather, we base our laws and ethics off an understand ing that is a huge number of years old While most philosophical masterminds take after the same relative rules, there are a couple of contrasts. The thought of religion overwhelming societal standards and inalienable conduct of individuals are both illustrations of contrasting suppositions. Todays general public may have been begun as an application of rationality, yet the expectations made by Machiavelli and different rationalists about the defilement of governments has worked out

The Objective Of Conducting Job Analysis

The Objective Of Conducting Job Analysis Job analysis helps in analyzing the resources and establishing the strategies to accomplish the business goals and strategic objectives. Effectively developed, employee job descriptions are communication tools that are significant in an organizations success. The main objective of conducting job analysis is to know whether the job description and job specification which was mentioned to hire right quality of work force by the company is appropriate or not. Secondly, to know whether any training is given to the employees after their recruitment to a particular specified job as if there is any confusion about what the job is and what is supposed to be done, proper training efforts cannot be initiated without knowing the specific requirements of the job are identified. Thirdly, to study the skill levels of the employees, work environment, responsibilities and required level of education as job analysis identifies the performance criteria so that it promote worker for a better performance. Finally, to study the pharmaceutical industry and its environment as the industry deals with the production it can reveal if any unsafe conditions associated with the job. Literature Review: Job Analysis is a term used by the human resource managers for the process of collecting information related to job contents compared tasks performed on the job with knowledge, skills and abilities of the jobholders (Schuman, et al, 1994). Job Analysis is a process where judgements are made about data collected on a job. Job Analysis data may be collected from the incumbents through interviews or questionnaires; the main concept of the analysis is description or specifications of the job, not a description of the person. An important concept of Job Analysis is that the analysis is conducted of the Job, not the person. Job analysis is a pattern of tasks, duties and responsibilities that can be done by a person. Job analysis seeks to study about the activity to determine the tasks, duties and responsibilities needed for each job. It is a process of gathering, analyzing and synthesizing information about jobs. According to Werther and Davis (1996) Job analysis is the process of defining the work, activities, tasks, products services or processes performed by the employees of an organisation. Henderson (1982) explained that a job analysis is a systematic exploration of the activities in a job. On the other hand, Decenzo and Robbins (1988) depicted that job analysis indicates what activities and accountabilities the job entails. It says that it is just an accurate recording of the activities involved in the job. According to Robert. B (2008) the organisation should invest time to analyse the value, mission and goals before undertaking the organizational analysis as from the organizational analysis will flow the job analysis, job descriptions and hiring protocols. Job analysis can be used for developing a variety of human performance management team. Sometimes when job analysis is inadequately conducted, it results in incomplete or inaccurate information. Cascio (1978) says that one must gather information regarding the specific job attributes and he defined the attributes into 8 segments and these are called job analysis information hierarchy. The segments are element, task, duty, position, job, job family, occupation and career. Finally, job analysis provides critically important information that will guide management in decision-making. The main purpose of the job analysis is to identify the experience, education, training and other qualifying factors, possessed by candidates for specific jobs. There are two key elements of a job analysis they are identification of major job requirements and the identification of knowledge, skills and abilities required to perform the accomplished task or job. Decenzo and Robbins (1996) have developed some basic principles concerning jobs and the process of analyzing them. The principles are: 1. All jobs can be analyzed and recorded 2. Job analysis can enhance communication among the employees in the organisation. 3. The process of job analysis can easily make changes. 4. If the job analysis process is clear then employees and employers can understand and contribute their part for the process. 5. Job analysis based on observable behaviour and work products contributes to efficient HRM. 6. Clearly everything regarding the job (job description) should be written and explained well to the employees. The job analyst gathers the data about each job but not about every person in the organisation and pass this required information to the HR specialists, who actually recruits the employees. According to Nancy (1988) recorded job information plays a crucial role because it influences most HR activities. Before collecting the information about specific jobs, employees should be informed about why the job analysis is being done. In this dissertation, the result of job analysis will be used in job evaluation and decision-making of job description. The purpose of job analysis is to elicit information pertaining to various types of jobs. The job analyst is naturally perceived by others with suspicion since his/her investigations are going to be used as the basis for job evaluation. People should be elucidated as to the purpose of the exercise, the reasons why it is necessary, what it is hoped will be achieved, ways in which information obtained will be collected and processed, and how deci sions affecting their jobs will be arrived at. Shifting the important from the trivial aspects of a job during and after analysis is really what the whole exercise is about. A common danger is to collect too much information, making it difficult to see the wood for the trees. On the whole, this is a more common pitfall than making just a cursory examination and ending up with a sketchy, incomplete picture. In making the analysis, if a fact is unimportant, it should immediately be discarded. To provide a framework on which to structure both the analysis and the information obtained, it is useful to look at the job from two points of view: first, the duties and responsibilities entailed; second, the skills and personal attributes necessary for the successful execution of that job (Myers, 1986). What an individual does and what personal attributes he needs to bring to the job provide us with the dimensions critical for making evaluative decisions between the relative worth of one job and another. The process of job analysis is much more difficult than might appear at first sight. The conventional techniques listed all have limitations (Prasad, 1997). For managerial jobs, the matter can become very complicated, and it may well be necessary to construct the analysis in terms of the criteria by which the job is to be evaluated, for example, problem-solving, accountability, and know-how. Job analysis can be misleading; therefore, the totality of a job is greater than the sum of its individual parts. Schweiger (1983) explained that recent interest in studying managerial cognitive style has led to the development and use of a variety of instruments. For the purpose of job evaluation, the evidence from job analysis should be treated with caution. Stewart (1982) worked on a model having for understanding managerial jobs and behaviour was conceived in one study and developed and applied in 3 others. Some forms of flexibility are common to many managerial jobs. The need is to move from Mintbergs (1973) roles and propositions about managerial work to an analysis that takes into account the variations in behaviour and the differences in jobs before attempting to generalize the managerial work. Kay .G (2005) says that the job evaluation acts as a tool to provide the means of assessing jobs to make an equal value decision. A major purpose for job analysis is to obtain information for a job evaluation project that may be organisation-wide or simply consist of an individual employees request for his or her job to be re-evaluated. Cascio (1995) states that there are different number of methods to study jobs. Some combination of methods must be used to obtain a total picture of the task and physical, mental, social and the environmental demand of a job. Job analysis is the process of looking at exactly what a job requires in order to determine the necessary job qualifications. Through the job analysis a jobs skills, knowledge and ability (KSA) can be defined in operational terms. This is essential if the job analysis data are to have any utility for example, it may be used for the performance assessment. Once the jobs have been sorted using the KSA level their scores are entered in to the system to get the ranking for the jobs. The jobs with less KSAs tend to be lower in the organisation than the jobs with greater KSAs; this is relevant in determining the key job elements required for the job in the organisation. Job Characteristics Model If the type of work a person does is so important, the specific job characteristics that affect productivity, motivation and satisfaction can be identified. Hackman and Oldham (1975) has developed a model to identify 5 such job characteristics and their interrelationship and they called it job characteristics model. The early research with this model indicates that it can be useful in redesigning the jobs of individuals. The 5 core characteristics of the model are: Skill Variety: The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities so one can use a number of different skills and talents. Task Identity: The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. Task Significance: The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people. Autonomy: The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. Feedback: The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance. In this model first three dimensions combine to create meaningful work. That is, if these 3 characteristics exist in a job, we can predict the incumbent will view their job as being important, valuable, and worthwhile. The jobs that possess autonomy give the employee a feeling of personal responsibility for the results and if it provides feedback the employee will know how effectively they are performing. From a motivational standpoint, the model says that internal rewards are obtained by individuals when they learn that they personally have performed well on a task that they care about. Dodd and Ganster (1996) objectively manipulated job dimensions of autonomy, variety and feed back to evaluate their effect on perceptions of job characteristics and on job outcomes. In a high variety task, increased autonomy led to increased satisfaction, while in a low variety task, increased autonomy had a negligible effect on satisfaction. Saks and Waldman (1998) examined the relationship between age and job performance evaluations for newcomers recently hired into entry-level positions. They found a negative relationship between age and job performance evaluations. This relationship was eliminated after controlling for undergraduate grade average and prior work experience, operationalized as the number of jobs that a newcomer had previously held. Glick, Jenkins and Gupta (1986) compared the relative strengths of the effects of method versus substance on relationships between job characteristics and attitudinal outcomes. They compared the reports from both job incumbents and non-incumbents on job characteristics and job attitude. Substantive relationships were observed between job characteristics and effort, supporting the job characteristics model. Common method effects, however, inflated relationships between job characteristics and affective outcome, thereby supporting the social information-processing model. Gist (1987) described that self-efficacy (ones belief in ones capability to perform a task) affects task effort, persistence, expressed interest and the level of goal difficulty selected for the performance. Despite this, little attention has been given to its organizational implications. He reviewed the self-efficacy concept and then explores its theoretical and practical implications for organizational behaviour and human resource management. Taber and Peters (1991) analyzed employee perception of the completeness of a self-report, point factor job evaluation system. Complementary qualitative and quantitative techniques were used to identify characteristics of jobs, characteristics of employees and characteristics of the job evaluation procedure that affected employee perceptions of the system. Analyses indicated that the job evaluation instrument might describe some classes of jobs more completely than others. Spector, Jex and Chen (1995) examined the possibility that intervals with certain personality traits tend to be found in certain types of jobs. They examined specially correlations between two personality traits, optimism and anxiety and measures of job characteristics obtained through job analysis. The results have showed that those who were high in traits anxiety tended to be in job characterized by low autonomy, variety, identity, feed-back, significance and complexity. On the other hand those reporting high levels of optimism tended to be in jobs characterized by high levels of each of these job characteristics. Taber and Alliger (1995) described that research on job satisfaction traditionally has gathered data at the level of the overall job. As a job consists of many tasks some of which may be enjoyable, complex, and important and some not. Global and facet measures of job satisfaction were found to be consistent with, but only partially predictable from, individual task properties. Task analysis is a cumbersome process; nevertheless, by complementing traditional, global measurement procedure, task level assessment may facilitate new research into the nature of job satisfaction. Somers and Bimbaum (1998) tested the proposition that relationships among the various types of work activities are related both to the form of commitment and the facet of performance under consideration affect commitment and job performance. They suggested that job involvement was related only to performance tied to intrinsically rewarding elements of work, and career commitment was positively related to overall performance activities. These forces effect the individual organisation in different ways and can bring change in organisations. Evaluation plans used to translate job duties into relative job worth may take different forms (James, 1991). Essentially, however, the principal measuring techniques for determining relative job worth differ from one another in three ways. First, what is measured the whole job or identifiable elements of the job. Second, whether or not point values are assigned to establish quantitative measures of job value. Third, how jobs are measured against other jobs, or against a pre-described yard-stick. Application of these techniques can result in four basically different types of job evaluation plans. These are, and have been for many years, the ranking system, the classification system, point evaluation plans, and factor comparison plans. Combinations of these systems can also be used. The Ranking System The most widely used method of job evaluation is the ranking system. Under this plan, a job is ranked against other jobs, without assigning point values. Evaluators simply compare two jobs and judge which is more difficult. Once this determination has been made, a third job is compared with the first two and similar decision made. The process is repeated until all jobs have been ranked, from the most difficult to the least difficult. The greatest advantage of the ranking system is its simplicity. The evaluation process is quick and inexpensive. Also, the ranking system uses a job against-job comparison, which is the most accurate method of evaluation, because it is far easier to judge which of two jobs is more difficult than it is to judge the absolute difficulty of either. On the other hand, the system does little to guide the judgment of evaluators. There is a tendency to judge each job on the basis of its dominant characteristics, which can result in inconsistencies. In addition, it is extremely difficult to explain or justify the results of ranking to employees or managers, because there is no record of the judgements of evaluators. Finally, the ranking system can indicate only that one job is more difficult than another, not how much more difficult it is. The Point System Under the point evaluation system, various factors which measure a job are selected and defined. A separate yard-stick for different degrees of each factor is prepared. A job is then rated against every yard-stick. In essence, this is the same process as the classification system except that the job is evaluated on a separate scale for each factor. In addition, each degree of each factor has point weightings. Point evaluation systems provide a written record of judgements made. In addition, the degrees in each factor provide a guideline for judgements. Because points are assigned for each factor, each job can be given a total numeric point value, which provides a measure of how much more difficult one job is than another. The main problems of the point evaluation system are the difficulty of selecting relevant factors, of defining degrees for each factor and assigning appropriate point values. In addition, there is the problem of determining the correct number of degrees. Ideally, ju st enough degrees are established to identify minimum measurable differences in each factor. Finally, the various degree definitions must be written so as to serve as guides that are both useful and meaningful in terms of the jobs being measured in each specific company. Factor Comparison The final basic approach used in traditional job evaluation is the factor comparison system. In this system, factors must also be identified, as under the point system. Within each factor, a ranking system rather than a classification system is used. That is, for each factor, the evaluator ranks all jobs from highest to lowest. Various degrees result, but they are not defined or described. Points are assigned to each of these degrees. Factor comparison has two basic advantages. First, it uses the job-by-job comparison technique. Second, it does not involve the semantic problems encountered in defining factor degrees. However, because of the lack of definitions, it is always difficult to explain the results of factor comparison evaluations to employees or supervisors. Combination Systems In practice, most companies use combination plans. The most typical approach is to use a combination factor comparison and point system (Hartley D.E, 2004). In this way, the advantages of each system are obtained, and the difficulties of each are neutralised. In the combination system, there are five steps involved. Firstly, factors are selected and defined. These are usually the five basic factors of responsibility, authority, knowledge, skill, and working conditions. Secondly, benchmark jobs are selected and priced if they can be priced in the market, and all benchmark jobs are ranked under each factor. This includes both those which were priced in the market-place and those which were not. Ranking of market-priced jobs, however, must reflect market pay relationships. Ranking of other jobs is done primarily by comparison with jobs that have been priced. Thirdly, points are assigned to each degree of each factor on the basis of a standard system. The relative maximum weight of each factor is a function of the number of degrees established in the ranking process. Fourthly, each degree is defined. This is done in terms of the company jobs that have been ranked in each degree. Finally, all other jobs are evaluated, by comparison against degree definitions and on a job-against-job ranking system, particularly using benchmark jobs priced under each factor. Edmund .H (1996) says that new methods of pay are introduced by many companies. Each form or element of pay serves a different objective for the company. Each has evolved over time to deal with specific company needs. Each element of compensation also tends to meet different employee aspirations or objectives. The elements of compensation may be categorised in six ways. There are premium payments, bonus payments, long-term income payments, pay for time not worked, benefits, and estate building plans. Each of these elements is more applicable to some groups of employees than to others. For instance, overtime is applied only to operations persons. Long-term income plans are typically restricted to higher-paid persons. There are also non-financial rewards, which are difficult to categorise. Basically, some company characteristics represent a form of remuneration to employees. The work done and the work environment can have value, even though no monetary payments are involved.(Risher .H, 1979) Other characteristics whose value cannot readily be expressed in terms of dollars but which to the employee represent income value or remuneration include titles and various perquisites. There are, of course, many different ways in which job analysis can be tackled. Some cover the information which would normally go into a job description, and some cover the main points of a job specification (McCormick, 1980). The suggestion here is that a comprehensive job information sheet should be compiled for each job. It does not matter whether it is called a job description or job specification, provided all relevant information about the job is recorded clearly, accurately, and so far as is possible, with brevity. The critical incident technique (Flanagan, 1954) is an attempt to identify the more important, or noteworthy, aspects of job behaviour. Originally it was developed as a check-list rating procedure for performance appraisal, but its merits lend itself to other investigatory activities such as job analysis for the purpose of job evaluation. In this latter context, the idea is to highlight the critical aspects of a job which are crucial to its successful performance. It can usefully be applied to multi-task jobs as a means for establishing priorities between job elements. The diary method is a self-reporting analysis of the activities engaged in over a period and the amount of time spent on all of them, recorded in the form of a diary. It can become tedious and onerous for the job incumbent, and is probably the method most open to abuse and faking. To conduct job analysis effectively, managers have the obligation to keep all the job information up to date. It is vital that they report changes in the organisation, job assignments, and methods of work to ensure that classifications are kept current. Even when staff specialists evaluate jobs, line managers still have the basic responsibility of reviewing both the job analysis and the results of job evaluation. This review carries with it the authority to approve or appeal. Line managers have the basic responsibility for making pay decisions. Decisions must be made within the framework of policies, practices, techniques, and controls. Clearly, the individual supervisor is involved in interpreting compensation policies and applying them to many individual situations. The supervisor also has the job of gaining employee acceptance of the company evaluation and compensation programme. The supervisor is not likely to gain that acceptance unless employees understand basic policies and pr actices, and unless they perceive that the application of those policies and practices in individual situations is equitable and reasonable. Information, knowledge, programmes, and practices must be continuously reviewed and re-thought. Management of job analysis, job evaluation and compensation administration, like many other fields, requires a never ending search for excellence. Findings: The author has used the questionnaire to collect the information regarding the employees job specification and their actual job performance. From the questionnaire employees answered the author has analyzed the data in the following way. Table 1 Describes about the employees participated in the research Males 65 Females 35 Under Graduates 47 Graduates and above 53 Part-time Workers 30 Full time Workers 70 Had training on their job performance 80 No training 20 People performing single role 85 People performing more than 1 role 15 People working less than a year (new) 13 People working from more than a1/2 yrs (old) 87 The above data can be represented in chart format as below. Where, M-males FM-females UG-undergraduate G-graduate PT-part-time FT-full time T-training NT-no training SR-single role MR-many roles LT-less time MT-more time Table 2 Describes about the employees responses to the Questionnaire sent by the author on job analysis. Characteristics Very Satisfied Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied Job Description 74 24 2 _ _ Training 80 20 _ _ _ Job performance 85 13 1 1 _ Essential skills for job 70 26 1 3 _ Workload 73 21 2 2 2 Co-operation of higher officials 88 10 2 _ _ Pay and performance relation 92 5 3 _ _ Security at work place 96 4 _ _ _ Administration 69 28 1 2 _ Basic Salary 87 10 3 _ _ Physical working environment 77 20 1 1 ! Opportunity for personnel development 65 20 3 8 4 Job security 74 18 5 3 _ Job Satisfaction 86 10 1 3 _ Job duties are clear 90 6 4 _ _ Evaluation of job 78 29 2 1 _ About additional responsibilities 70 21 6 1 2 Purpose of job 77 17 5 _ 1 Job definition 92 8 _ _ _ About additional skills 73 24 2 1 _ Using the above data collected the major attributes of the research can be depicted in pie diagrams as follow: From the total findings the research the whole analysis of the company data can be plotted in to an area graph to show the employees overall feeling about their job.

A Life In The Day Of Me :: Papers

A Life In The Day Of Me My mother knocks. The door opens. Bright light blasts into my consciousness; I cannot see. I leap out of bed to reduce the longing to return and the cold hits me like a slap. As you can probably tell, I am not a morning person - I never have been. I have learnt to hate them over the years. We have never had heating on until Mid-November because my parents insist that they can't afford to heat the whole house. This makes mornings a nightmare! Once I'm up, I can just about manage. I dress and eat breakfast to music. Music is a significant thing for me. My parents used to be in a band together and my mother is still trying to get a record-deal. She always likes to think of herself as a young and trendy mum. She is really into the house and garage music scene, but meà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦I'm a different story. Everyone in my family has opposite views on music. My mother and one of my little sisters, Heidi, like pop and garage music. My father, my youngest sister, and I like rock and Heavy Metal. This causes terrible arguments over what to listen to in the car or whilst eating dinner. However, the one band that we all agree on is Nirvana. I am a massive fan of Nirvana and have flags and posters of them all over my room. This is why I listen to Nirvana in the mornings - because nobody minds. By the time I get to school, I am (almost) fully awake. I have to walk to the station and get the train to school so I arrive at school feeling like I've been up for ages. Once I get my brain in gear it doesn't slow down. I constantly think - about everything! I occasionally come out with a random comment, completely off the subject because I've been thinking about it while everyone else is speaking. People have therefore got the impression that I'm slightly mindless because I never know what people are talking about.

Pre-existing Knowledge Essay -- Scientific Research

‘It is more important to discover new ways of thinking about what is already known than to discover new data or facts’. To what extent would you agree with this claim? Albert Einstein said, â€Å"We shall require a substantially new manner of thinking if mankind is to survive.† This new manner of thinking should be based on pre-existing knowledge. This pre-existing knowledge is necessary because it is the catalyst that pushes the human race forward, making us want to discover more. Trying to discover completely new knowledge would not yield the same results. Basing your research off what you already know allows you to compare the new data that you collected to the old data that is already present. If you discover something new you will have nothing to compare it with. This does not allow you the luxury of seeing if what you discovered was an improvement. This essay will examine how important it is to discover new ways of thinking about prior knowledge than it is to discover new facts. I believe that using prior knowledge to push discovery is much more important than trying to discovers new data or facts. Medicine is one area that constantly looks to use prior knowledge to discover new things. Take the HeLa cells for instance. The initial discover of these cells occurred in 1951. These cells came from a black woman named Henrietta Lacks. She was diagnosed with cervical cancer. He doctor took a segment of her tumor and sent it to Dr. George Otto Grey, who was the first scientist to successfully grow human cells in a culture. These cells would go on to be used in research for cloning, the polio vaccine, gene mapping and in virto fertilization. These cells were important to science because no scientist had an endless supply of cells ... ...n can be affected by the quest to discover something new. In some cases it can lead to betterment, but in other cases it can cause many problems. Works Cited Zielinski, Sarah. "Smithsonian.com." Smithsonian Magazine. 22 Jan. 2010. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/Henrietta-Lacks-Immortal-Cells.html Freeman, David H. "The Triumph of New-Age Medicine." The Atlantic. 2011. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. . "The Big Bang." PBS. PBS. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. . â€Å"The Steady State Theory.† PBS. PBS. Web. 27 Feb.2012.. "Plato's Cave." My Webspace Files. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. .

Conflicts Caused by Differences among Groups Essay

Conflicts Caused by Differences among Groups Throughout history differences among groups have often led to conflict. Two specific conflicts were the persecution of Christians during the Roman Empire and the Armenian massacres. These two conflicts were caused by differences among groups. The persecution of Christians during the Roman Empire was caused by differences in religion. In 1914 the conflict between the Turks and the Armenians led to the Armenian massacre which was caused by political differences. The persecution of Christians during the Roman Empire was caused by differences in religion. The Roman Empire was quite tolerant in its treatment of other religions. The imperial policy was generally one of incorporation; the local gods of a newly conquered area were simply added to the Roman pantheon and often given Roman names. Even the Jews, with their one god, were tolerated. For the Romans, religion was first and foremost a social activity that promoted unity and loyalty to the state, a religious attitude the Romans called pietas, or piety. Cicero wrote that if piety in the Roman sense were to disappear, social unity and justice would perish along with it. The Roman distaste for Christianity then, arose in large part from its sense that it was bad for society. The effect of this conflict was that it led to the persecution of Christians. Secondly, the Armenian massacre was another conflict that happened because of differences among groups. In 1914, the Turks entered World War I on the side of Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Military leaders began to argue that the Armenians were traitors. If they thought they could win independence the Armenians would be eager to fight for the enemy. As the war intensified Armenians organized volunteer battalions to help the Russian army fight against the Turks in the Caucasus region. These events and general Turkish suspicion of the Armenian people led the Turkish government to push for the removal of the Armenians from the war zones along the Eastern Front. On April 24, 1915, the Armenian genocide began. That day the Turkish government arrested and executed several hundred Armenian intellectuals. After that ordinary Armenians were turned out of their homes and sent on death marches through the Me sopotamian desert without food or water. Frequently, the marchers were stripped naked and forced to walk under the scorching sun until they dropped dead. People who stopped to rest were shot. In conclusion, differences among groups have  often led to conflicts. Two main conflicts were the persecution of Christians during the Roman Empire, which was caused by differences in religion, and the Armenian massacre, which was caused by political differences

Public Administration and Management Essay

Introduction Public administration in Britain takes place through a variety of state agencies with varying histories, functions, as well as patterns of political control and accountability. These comprise the civil service; a large number of local bureaucracies serving an elective system of local government; another massive organization administering the National Health Service (NHS) and, under the acronym ‘quango’, a diverse range of organizations responsible for a assortment of administrative, consultative, advisory in addition to regulatory roles. In addition there is a compound of tribunals, inquiries, an ombudsman system and the judiciary, which together dispense administrative justice. The architecture of the modern state was drawn mainly in the nineteenth century, when the rising industrial bourgeoisie required a means of supporting the emerging capitalist economy. A number of major reports and Acts of Parliament offered blueprints for a competent and meritocratic modern civil service and the system of carefully managed municipalities. Reconstruction following the Second World War added a new layer to the modern state with the making of a inclusive welfare state, including the NHS, and the nationalization of a number of chief industries in the form of public corporations. From the 1980s an additional chapter was opened, as the post-war Keynesian beliefs were challenged in the rise of neo-liberalism under the government of Margaret Thatcher. The bureaucratic terrain was re-landscaped, part of a procedure distinguished as a ‘hollowing out’ of the state (Rhodes 1994; 1997). Even though talk of reform had long featured on the political program, the public bureaucracies had established a renowned capacity to resist change. However, this time the thoughts were backed by resolute political will. A significant intellectual dynamic came from interpretation based on rational individuality under the name of public choice theory (Niskanen 1973). This was usually suspicious of public bureaucracies, which were seen as principally self serving. Much of the practical reform in structure and management was stirred by the model of the private sector, where it was reasoned that the restraint of the profit motive secured greater efficiency, effectiveness as well as economy. The oratory spoke of ‘reinventing government’ (Osborne and Gaebler 1992); though to critics it emerged as abandoning government in an anti-statist crusade. A program of privatization cut sheathe through the state industrial sector while giving rise to a new generation of regulatory agencies. Much of the civil service was recast into a compound of agencies with a greater level of autonomy from the centre, and the collection of quangos began to grow as responsibilities for a variety of functions were transferred from the realm of elected local government. Indeed, processes of market testing as well as compulsory competitive tendering saw the stipulation of certain services passing from the state altogether and into the hands of the private sector. The arrival of a Labour Government in 1997 did little to stem the tide of change. Furthermore, this new government occasioned further seismic shifts through devolution to Scotland and Wales. Great Britain includes the nations of England, Wales and Scotland, while the United Kingdom extends the embrace to Northern Ireland. These cultural forms were recognized in an outline of administrative regionalism. For long this motivated little political feeling; only in Northern Ireland were separatist tensions felt. Nonetheless, during the 1980s, nationalist movements gathered speed in both Wales and Scotland; this sequentially generated some pressure towards English regionalism. Thus the state has been forced to concern itself with issues of territorial management and make some chief allowances to diversity (Thompson, 1997). Rooted in a history dating from the take-over of Ireland by the Tudors and re-conquest first by Cromwell and later by the Protestant William of Orange, Northern Ireland dwarfs all other territorial problems of UK Government. Coming to office in the year 1997, Tony Blair’s first official journey was to Ulster and Sinn Fein was invited into new peace talks. After indirect negotiations, which included some mediation from US President Bill Clinton, an agreement was reached which included: A Northern Ireland assembly of 108 elected by PR with legislative powers under an all-party executive A North-South Ministerial Council to reflect on issues for instance cross-border co-operation The Irish Government to give up constitutional claims to Northern Ireland and Westminster to reinstate the Government of Ireland Act A Council of the Isles comprising members from the north and south of Ireland and the Scottish and Welsh assemblies There were also to be releases of prisoners in addition to a decommissioning of arms. The agreement was effectively put to referendums in Northern Ireland and the Republic in May 1998. Elections were held, but advancement began to slow down. Scotland and Wales In the UK mainland, Wales and Scotland had been governed as provinces from London, with Secretaries of State in the Cabinet and Grand Committees in Parliament. Public administration in the provinces came under Whitehall outposts, the Welsh and Scottish Offices. Nonetheless, from 1979 an extremely centralizing government heightened a mood of separatism, placing strains on the veracity of the state which were to go off in tectonic constitutional shifts in 1998. The configuration of the two new assemblies was intended to release a safety valve on the separatist pressure. On the other hand, opinion polls began to show rising support for the SNP and its objective of complete Scottish independence in the background of the EU. Comparable murmurings were heard in Wales, a country that had done very fine from its European involvement (Jones 1997). Labor’s central machine showed an enthusiastic concern to have its chosen men as the leaders of the provincial parties (and hence first ministers in the assemblies) representing a keen aspiration to keep the provinces under the Westminster wing. Nonetheless, when the elections by the additional member system (d’Hondt version) to the new assemblies were held on 6 May 1999, the Labour Party, with 28 of the 60 seats in the Welsh Senedd, and 59 of Scotland’s 129-seat assembly, failed to win unconditional majorities in either province. A future of alliance government loomed. furthermore, with 17 seats in Wales and 35 in Scotland, the nationalists were second placed in both cases, possibly presaging further separatist pressure (Drewry, & Butcher, 1991). England Devolution debate reverberated into England with requirements for regional independence. A political split was opening as from the early 1980s voting patterns gradually more revealed the Conservatives as a party of the southeast. past the ballot box an economic split yawned as huge deindustrialization and the collapse of mining confounded communities in the north. The economic forecasting organization, the Henley Centre, found per capita income in the south-east to be 20 per cent higher than in the rest of Britain (Wagstyl 1996). A European Commission report of November 1996 established that, while post-war economic revival had closed the poverty gaps between Western Europe’s states, wide dissimilarities remained between regions, the greatest being within the UK.   The British public sector, with numerous of its customs cast in the nineteenth century, has for long been criticized as managerially incompetent. The post-war era saw repeated efforts at reform all through the public sector, though few made any lasting notion before the 1980s. Ever since this time there has been something of a revolution as what was phrased a ‘new public management’ movement became a familiar international influence (Hood 1991; Lowndes 1997). It was to send shivers to the very foundations of the state, reforming structures as well as practices. The nineteenth-century reforms recognized a custom of elitist generalism and social superiority in which Oxbridge graduates schooled in the classics were to lead the upper reaches of the state bureaucracy. This was to stimulate substantial post-war debate. The onset in office of a Labour Government in 1964 pledged revolution and the 1968 Fulton Committee set up by Harold Wilson criticized the ‘cult of the amateur’. It resulted in the formation of a Civil Service Department (CSD) in Whitehall to supervise managerial reforms all through the service, and the establishment of a Civil Service College to offer continuing operating training. One proposal which failed to stimulate was that entrants should hold relevant degrees: the place of the ‘generalist’ administrator remained unassailed. In the 1990s, Richards (1996) initiated the generalists’ promotion prospects still significantly brighter than those of the specialist. In the interim, the Civil Service College had fallen well short of the determined position envisaged for it and the CSD had been ignominiously wipe out from the bureaucratic map. Not until Thatcher took the bit between her teeth did a grave breakthrough come. In her first year of office an Efficiency Unit was set up headed by Sir Derek Rayner of the retail giant Marks & Spencer. He initiated a system of ‘scrutinies’ in which competence teams studied recognized practices and suggested reforms, an initiative which achieved more than anything before (Hennessy 1990:619). Even so, the reforms did not go far enough for those of a fundamental bent. An even greater culture shock was to come when Robin Ibbs took over the Efficiency Unit and produced the 1988 report, ‘Improving Management in Government: The Next Steps’. This was the report which led to the recasting of the Civil Service as executive agencies. Despite its structural impact the intent in this initiative was essentially managerial (Elcock 1991:236-42). Once established, the new chief executives were given a free rein to introduce a wide range of management practices such as performance-related pay and short-term contracts in the quest for efficiency. A special unit was created in the Cabinet Office to maintain the reforming impetus. The government also assisted developments by abolishing the Northcote-Trevelyan model of centralized recruitment through the independent Civil Service Commission for some 95 per cent of appointments. Responsibility was to lie with the various departments and agencies themselves. A Recruitment and Assessment Service was created to offer central assistance if required although, amidst heated controversy, this itself was privatized in 1991. The result was a variety of terms and conditions of employment throughout the service. There were limits to the revolution. Government radicals had wanted the reforms to reach the senior mandarins, subjecting them to short-term contracts, market-testing and large-scale appointments from the private sector on the ‘revolving-door’ principle. For most civil servants, anticipating a life insulated from the chill winds of the market economy, much of the managerial reform process was demoralizing. While academics in the right-wing think tanks applauded the changes, many other academic critics saw in the quest for efficiency serious threats to the fundamental public service ethos (Elcock 1991:188; Chapman and O’Toole 1995). There was some feeling that the reforms reflected governmental antagonism towards civil servants as much as a quest for improved management; the term ‘deprivileging’ was sometimes heard. The Treasury and Civil Service Select Committee noted that in 1992/3,  £768 million worth of activities out of the  £1.119 billion subjected to market testing were contracted out without civil servants even being allowed to make in-house bids. The traditional management structure in local government entailed separate departments responsible for the provision of various services, each headed by a chief officer and responsible to a particular council committee. A legion of post-war critics saw this as slow, cumbersome and diffuse. A major debate in the 1960s concerned a corporate management model in which a powerful chief executive would displace the traditional town clerk to give strong leadership at the centre. Councilors, faced with a palpable loss of power, proved resistant and traditional practices persisted, although often under the camouflage of some changed nomenclature. New impetus came with the Thatcher regime and was elaborated under John Major (Kingdom 1999). Looking as always to the private sector, much was made of the concept of the ‘enabling authority’; the emphasis was not on the direct provision services but on contracting them out to the private and voluntary sectors. Such a practice was by no means new but, from the late 1980s, it became central to government policy, with compulsory competitive tendering (CCT) introduced for an ever-widening range of functions, from refuse collection to professional, legal and accounting responsibilities. A policy of care in the community, coming into force in April 1993, added impetus by requiring local authorities to make use of private and voluntary-sector residential homes for their widening community care responsibilities. In opposition Labour had poured scorn on the policy; in government it maintained the contracting out principle under the term ‘Best Value’. The managerial implications in CCT were profound. Although local responses varied with political complexion, few authorities could remain untouched by the culture shift. Even where there was no stomach for contracting out, teams of officials had to endure considerable stress in producing competitive in-house bids in order to keep their jobs. Colleagues found themselves in competitive relationships with each other, some becoming contractors and others providers (Audit Commission 1993). Moreover, the drawing up and monitoring of contracts required the skills of lawyers and accountants rather than elected councilors. Major’s Environment Secretary Michael Heseltine produced a consultation document, The Internal Management of Local Authorities, stressing that the control and co-ordination of large workforces would no longer be the central management task. The paper looked for speedy decision-making and strong leadership, advocating local cabinets, appointed council managers or, most radically, directly elected US-style mayors with high public profiles. The latter had held little appeal to Heseltine’s party but, in a February 1998 consultation paper, Modernizing Local Government: Local Democracy and Community Leadership, the new Labour Government declared itself ‘very attracted’ to the model of a strong directly elected mayor (para 5.14). The promised Greater London Authority was seen as a suitable flagship for innovation. Here the mayor, served by three or four deputies and a small bureaucracy of around 250, would set policy objectives and an annual budget (of some  £3.3 billion). The role of the councilors in the assembly would be approving rather than determining the budget. Responsibilities of the new mayor would include public transport, the fire brigade, strategic planning, trunk roads, traffic management, the ambulance service and possibly the arts. In addition, responsibility for the Metropolitan Police Force would be taken over from the Home Secretary. The potential power of the new office would be considerable, and both main parties showed alarm as the names of some of their more maverick members were canvassed. For Labour leader Tony Blair, the nightmare candidate appeared to be the left-wing Ken Livingstone, ex-leader of the old GLC and extremely popular with Londoners. The nightmare became reality in May 2000. There was an expectation that this model would be extended to other major cities. All 494 councils were asked to submit plans to central government showing how they would separate the decision-making role from that of representing constituents. Three options were offered: †¢ a leader elected by the council who would appoint a cabinet from the council A directly elected executive mayor who would appoint a cabinet from the council A directly elected mayor working with a full-time manager appointed by the council Conclusion The general election of May 1997 saw the end of an 18-year period of Conservative rule during which the administrative landscape of the state had been radically recast. Few corners of the public sector could be said to have escaped some aspect of the winds of change which included privatization, agencification, CCT, market-testing, public-private partnership ventures, the emergence by stealth of the ‘new magistracy’ and the general spread of a private-sector managerial ethos. In opposition, the Labour Party had maintained a prolonged crusade against most of the reforms, and many supporters had looked forward to the advance of the political bulldozers to level the ground. In power the party kicked off with a number of significant constitutional moves over devolution, the electoral system, the ECHR, the House of Lords, the Bank of England and the reform of local government. However, the party in power termed itself New Labour and preservation orders appeared over the recently privatized sector; indeed further privatizations were soon mooted in the cases of the Royal Mint and Air Traffic Control, and the remodeled Civil Service and NHS. In local government grant-maintained schools remained under the term ‘foundation schools’, and the replacement of CCT with ‘Best Value’ was, in the eyes of critics, little more than cosmetic (Theakston, & Fry, 1998). Moreover, there remained something very much like a capping regime over local government expenditure. In managerial terms, the three Es of effectiveness, economy and efficiency continued as the holy trinity. As the millennium closed it was safe to say that, while the British public sector would remain in the state of flux allowed by its vague and unwritten constitution, the substructure had seen some tectonic shifts from which there would be little reversal.   Reference: Audit Commission (1993) Realising the Benefits of Competition: The Client Role forContracted Services, London: HMSO. Birkinshaw, P. (1997) ‘Freedom of information’, Parliamentary Affairs, 50, 1:164-81. Chapman, R.A. and Toole, B.J. (1995) ‘The role of the civil service: a traditional view in a period of change’, Public Policy and Administration, 10, 2:3-20. Elcock, H. (1991) Change and Decay: Public Administration in the 1990s, Harlow: Longman. Hennessy, P. (1990) Whitehall, London: Fontana.   Hood, C. (1991) ‘A public management for all seasons’, Public Administration, 69, 1: 3-19. Jones, B. (1997) ‘Wales: a developing political economy’, in M. Keating and J. Loughlin (eds), The Political Economy of Regionalism, London: Frank Cass. Kingdom, J. (1999) ‘Centralisation and fragmentation: John Major and the reform of Local Government’, in P. Dorey (ed.), The Major Premiership, Basingstoke: Macmillan, pp 45-7. Klug, F., Starmer, K. and Weir, S. (1996) ‘Civil liberties and the parliamentary watchdog: the passage of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994’, Parliamentary Affairs, 49, 4:536-49.   Lowndes, V. (1997) ‘Change in public service management: new institutions and new managerial regimes’, Local Government Studies, 23, 2:42-66.   Mandelson, P. and Liddle, R. (1996) The Blair Phenomenon: Can New Labour Deliver? London: Faber.    Nicholson, E. (1996) Secret Society, London: Indigo. Osborne, D. and Gaebler, T. (1992) Reinventing Government, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Rhodes, R.A.W. (1994) ‘The hollowing out of the state: the changing nature of the public service in Britain’, Political Quarterly, 65:138-51. Rhodes, R.A.W. (1997) Understanding Governance: Policy Networks, Governance,Reflexivity and Accountability, Buckingham: Open University Press.   Richards, D. (1996) ‘Recruitment to the highest grades in the civil service-drawing the curtains Open’, Public Administration, 74, 4:657-77. Wagstyl, S. (1996) ‘Nice work if you can get it’, The. Financial Times, 18 December, 23. Theakston, K. and Fry, G.K. (1998) ‘Britain’s administrative elite: permanent secretaries 1900-1986’, Public Administration, 67, 2:129-48.   Ã‚   Thompson, B. (1997) ‘Conclusion: judges as trouble-shooters’, Parliamentary Affairs, 50, 1:182-9.   Drewry, G. and Butcher, T. (1991) The Civil Service Today (2nd edn), Oxford: Blackwell.